2008 Conflict continued as the al-Qaeda in the Islamist Maghreb (AQIM) continued to launch attacks against the government throughout 2008, with conflict reaching its peak in August. Civilian casualties mounted as both car and human bombs were used throughout the year, supposedly targeting military, police, foreign and government units countrywide. In August 2008, in a series of attacks over the span of 2 days by AQIM, approximately 80 were killed, in what was the most violent week for Algerians in almost a year.

2007 Conflict intensified as the newly named al-Qaeda in the Islamist Maghreb (AQIM) (formerly the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat - GSPC) launched a suicide bombing campaign throughout much of the year. Civilian casualties mounted as both car and human bombs were detonated in public places. In December 2007, at least 10 United Nations employees were killed when bombs exploded outside their Algiers office building. President Abdelaziz Bouteflika continues to attempt reconciliation but raids on insurgent camps have also been carried out in an attempt to end the violence.

2006 An estimated 800 rebels continued to fight government forces, with the GSPC (Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat) assumed to be the only important rebel organization left. Civilian impact reached a peak in May when the bodies of 18 children and 3 women were found in a cave. There were further allegations of government torture. A six month amnesty for government forces and rebel groups commenced in March, with approximately 300 rebels surrendering by the September deadline.

2005 Sporadic, low-intensity fighting between the Algerian army and GSPC rebels continued in eastern and western Algeria. The government pardoned nearly 7,000 prisoners following the approval of the government’s reconciliation charter in an October national referendum.

2004 Fighting continued at a significantly lower intensity with only a few major incidents between GSPC rebels and government armed forces. Action against the GSPC continues to be connected to the US-led war on terrorism because of links between the GSPC and al Qaeda.

2003 The Islamist rebel groups, notably the GSPC (Salafist Groups for Preaching and Combat) and the Islamic Salvation Army, continued to engage Algerian security forces in their struggle to establish an Islamic state. Although most fighting was between government and rebel forces, both sides were accused of targeting civilians as well. However, the overall number of conflict deaths declined.

2002 The GIA (Armed Islamic Group) and the GSPC (Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat) continued to fight state security forces and both sets of combatants continued to target civilians. According to independent media reports, the conflict claimed an average of 150 lives a month.

2001 Overall the level of violence dropped from 2000 following the amnesty provided by President Bouteflika. However, two Islamic guerilla groups, the GIA and the GSPC, rejected the amnesty and vowed to continue fighting.

2000 Following a government amnesty deadline in January, President Bouteflika sent forces to track down the remaining guerrilla strongholds. The majority of the Islamic Salvation Army guerrillas reportedly surrendered after their leader, Madani Mezrag, agreed to dissolve his force. The Armed Islamic Group (GIA), on the other hand, refused to take up the amnesty offer and there were reports that many Islamic militants remained at large. Although the level of violence has decreased since the massacres of 1997, by the end of the summer the level of violence was reportedly on the rise. According to Amnesty International, more than 2,500 people, mostly civilians, died in 2000.

1999 Clashes between government forces and rebel groups, the killings of civilians, and disappearances continued in 1999. Nevertheless, the level of violence, the majority of which was attributed to the GIA rebels, declined during the year.

1998 Government-rebel clashes, village massacres and other attacks on civilians by extremist rebel groups, and a plague of "disappearances" attributed to government security forces made 1998 another year of heavy bloodshed.

1997 Almost daily urban bombings and village massacres, and disappearances marked 1997 as a year of carnage. Most of the violence against civilians was attributed to extremist guerrillas, but with growing suspicion of government forces’ involvement.

Type of Conflict:

State control

Parties to the Conflict:

1) Government under President Abdelaziz Bouteflika who was reelected in 2004.

The Algerian government has continued to engage the rebels through its security forces (military and police) and through arming and training local militias. The call for increased military action against “terrorists” is associated with a strengthened relationship between the Algerian and US governments. In June 2005, the Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism Initiative was launched which sees US soldiers providing training to Algerian troops (among other countries in the region). Ties and negotiations on counter-terrorist measures have also been launched with Britain and France. A six-month offer of amnesty expired in September 2006, and the government has resumed its attempts to eradicate the rebels. During 2007, the government carried out raids on al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) in an attempt to curb the suicide bombings that became prevalent throughout the year. These have resulted in combatant casualties on both sides. In 2008, the government continued to launch an offensive against AQIM, whose ties with al-Qaeda in Iraq have lent it strength. Government officials made repeated claims that they had AQIM cornered, however, instead of buckling under the government pressure, AQIM seemed to get stronger as the year continued.

“President Abdelaziz Bouteflika was reelected in 2004 in a generally transparent, contested election. On November 12, the parliament adopted a constitutional amendment eliminating the two-term limit for the president. Multiparty parliamentary elections in May 2007 were conducted in a generally transparent manner, but authorities did not allow all political parties full access to the electoral process. The government held multiparty local elections in November 2007, but irregularities and charges of fraud marred the electoral process. A state of emergency implemented in 1992 remained in effect during the year. [2008 Human Rights Report: Algeria. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, 2009.]

“Human rights groups have accused various Algerian security forces of ‘forcibly disappearing’ at least 7,000 persons.” [FreedomHouse, 2006]

“The Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism Initiative, launched in June, dispatched US troops to train soldiers in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Nigeria to combat terrorism.” [Sarah Williams, African Terrorism, GlobalSecurity.org, September 8, 2005]

"... the government and its security forces may be partially responsible for some of the violence, as they have been repeatedly accused of infiltrating and directing GIA attacks in order to weaken popular support for Islamists by continuing the trail of violence." [Center for Defense Information, July 29, 2002]

versus

2) al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) formerly known as The Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC):

In January of 2007, the GSPC announced that it would be changing its name to al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, and that they would continue to fight alongside the al-Qaeda terrorist network in a so-called international Holy Way. In 2008, they remain the only rebel group fighting in Algeria, fighting primarily with suicide bombs, both car and human and through kidnapping. The group posted several statements on the internet during September saying it will not stop its attacks until Algeria is free from French and US influence and what it called the “apostate” Algerian government is removed.

“Algeria’s present al-Qaida offshoot is known as Al-Qaida in Islamic North Africa. It grew out of the GSPC, the last extremist group left over from the bloody civil war, which joined Osama bin Laden’s network in September 2006. Violence has steadily risen since then in this North African country of 34 million” [Associated Press, August 22, 2008]

“In January, the North African group declared that it had changed its name, to al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb.” [washingtonpost.com, 30 May, 2007]

“But despite the reports of rebel disagreements on the wisdom of suicide attacks, a hard core of several hundred rebels continues to fight, most notably in the mountains east of Algiers.” [Reuters, 7 September, 2007]

“Now led mainly by the GSPC, the rebellion has only about 500 men compared to 30,000 in the 1990s, operates usually in remote mountains and parts of the vast southern desert, and is heavily involved in drug trafficking, kidnapping and extortion.” [IOL, 13 December, 2006]

Status of the Fighting:       

2008 The conflict that was intensifying in 2007 has continued throughout 2008, with the majority of the violence occurring in August. Violence seemed to be largely located in both the regions of Kabylie, where AQIM is thought to have its base, and what is called the “deadly rectangle,” which runs in a hilly coastal area east of Algiers to Bouira, Tizi-Ouzou and Boumerdes. AQIM claimed the increase in violence in August was in response to an increased government crackdown on AQIM forces. Fighting in 2008 mainly occurred between the government and AQIM, with civilians and foreigners being caught up in the violence.

2007 The conflict has intensified with al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb waging a new war against the Algerian government. Numerous suicide bombings have been reported this year with hundreds killed, including soldiers, government officials, civilians, and foreigners. Government troops launched raids into insurgent zones in an effort to capture rebels which has led to increased fighting between the two parties.

“The increase in casualties stems from a military push in the Kabylie region east of the capital in which helicopter gunships, armoured vehicles and thousands of troops were deployed against rebels holed up in the mountains and forests, the newspapers said. Of the 45 dead, 33 were rebels, 11 were soldiers and on was a foreigner.” [Mail & Guardian, 2 April, 2007]

2006 The conflict remains at low intensity, as ambushes from both sides occur sporadically. Civilians continue to be harmed or killed by the GSPC, but since July, it has attacked mainly government security forces. Estimates of anti-government forces were raised to 800 rebels.

2005 Low-intensity conflict continued marked by sporadic clashes between government forces and the 300-500 strong GSPC in the western and eastern parts of the country. Both sides were reported to have carried out attacks on civilians with most incidents involving the GSPC.

"Government troops have been carrying out a large offensive on Islamic strongholds in eastern and western Algeria. No militant group claimed responsibility for the latest attacks. But security experts say hard-line members of the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat, Algeria’s main rebel group, have intensified attacks to try and sabotage a general amnesty President Abdelaziz Bouteflika was expected to offer this year to rebels and members of the armed forces." [Reuters, April 14, 2005]

2004 Conflict intensity declined significantly with fewer than 600 rebels believed to be still active, all members of the militant wing of the GSPC.

2003 Violence continued unabated as the main rebel groups inflicted damage upon security forces using guerrilla tactics and other indirect means of fighting such as ambushes. Government security services came under increased criticism over alleged human rights violations.

"Algerian security forces made ‘disappear’ at least 7,000 persons, more than any other country during the past decade." [Human Rights News, February 27, 2003]

2002 The GIA and the GSPC rebel groups continued to kill both military and civilian populations. Fighting was particularly intense surrounding May parliamentary elections. At the same time, the government intensified counter-insurgency measures in accordance with its strengthened “anti-terrorism” agenda. The government was also accused of killing civilians.

"According to the often-sketchy available information, the GIA slaughtered civilians indiscriminately and systematically while the Salafist Group frequently targeted members of the security forces and government-backed militias, but also killed civilians. Attribution was often difficult because the assailants usually fled without being apprehended and rarely claimed responsibility or explained their motives." [Human Rights Watch, World Report 2002: Algeria ]

"While it is likely that the rebels are responsible for many of the attacks, a group of dissident soldiers and some activists in France have accused the Algerian military of massacring civilians for political reasons and then blaming the rebels." [SIPRI Yearbook, 2002]

2001 The amnesty offered to Islamic guerillas by President Bouteflika led to the surrender and disarming of some Islamic guerillas, but not all. The level of violence decreased but attacks against military and civilian targets continued. The GIA (Groupe Islamique Arme), was the most active and was accused of the largest number of attacks and killings, both military and civilian.

"Despite the government amnesty offered two years ago to armed militants who surrendered to the authorities, violence has not ended...Very little is understood about the strategy of the GIA, and the Algerian authorities have so far shed no light on any of the thousands of killings routinely blamed on the group...Massacres attributed to GIA often appear to be at random, with victims generally selected from among travelers on country roads or poor villagers in outlying areas." [BBC News, July 7, 2001]

2000 Following an amnesty deadline on January 13 (restricted to insurgents who were not guilty of rape, murder, or bombings and who handed in their weapons), President Bouteflika sent forces to track down the remaining guerrilla strongholds, leading to renewed fighting. Earlier in the year, there were reports that the majority of the guerrillas had surrendered, after the Islamic Salvation Army’s leader, Madani Mezrag agreed to dissolve his force. However, many Islamic militants remained at large and by the end of the summer, violence was reportedly on the rise.

"A bid by Algeria ’s president to end an eight-year civil war by beginning an offensive against Islamic guerrillas who have defied a government amnesty has erupted into some of the fiercest fighting in years."[New York Times, 27 January 2000]

"...the operation was still continuing with heavy weapons fire and air bombardments. Correspondents say the Kabylie region in Algeria has been the scene of several recent clashes between the army and Islamist insurgents, who have rejected a government amnesty as part of a deal to end the long-running conflict." [BBC News, 20 June 2000]

1999 Arrests, killings, and disappearances persisted through 1999 although the extent of the violence decreased from the previous year. While the Islamic Salvation Army (associated with the FIS) generally respected a cease-fire it declared in 1997, the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) continued targeting civilians. Unarmed men, women, and children were killed in brutal attacks, particularly in rural areas, and many teenage and adult women were taken as captives.

"If the numbers of arrests, killings, and ‘disappearances’ were down, Algeria remained the most violent country in the Middle East and North Africa. While the Islamic Salvation Army (Armée Islamique du Salut, AIS) generally respected a cease-fire it declared in 1997, others, particularly the groups known under the Armed Islamic Group rubric (Groupe islamique armée, GIA), continued to target civilians indiscriminately. Hundreds of unarmed men, women, and children were slaughtered in brutal fashion in attacks, particularly in rural areas, that were officially blamed on ‘terrorists.’ Scores of teenage and adult women were abducted in these attacks. According to the testimony of women who had survived captivity, some abducted women were enslaved, raped, and later executed." [Human Rights Watch World Report, 2000]

1998 The level of the fighting increased in 1998, as the extremist Armed Islamic Group (GIA) was more involved in massacres and torture within villages and towns. The government continued retaliatory strikes on the various Islamic rebel groups, often at the expense of civilians who got in the way of their pursuit of insurgency leaders. The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was said to have largely observed a truce it began in October of 1997, though occasional clashes between the AIS and other armed groups were reported.

" Algeria ’s human rights emergency provoked more international concern and diplomatic activity during 1998 than at any time since the violence became endemic in 1992. The catalyst for the international outcry was a series of large-scale massacres, officially attributed to armed Islamist groups but with disturbing evidence suggesting possible collusion by the security forces. Other human rights violations committed by the security forces, including ‘disappearances’ and torture, also received a higher profile, due to the efforts of relatives of victims and their advocates, greater local press attention to these issues, the willingness of some deputies to raise them in parliament, and interventions by human rights groups and visiting foreign delegations." [Human Rights Watch World Report, 1999]

"According to press reports, in early January government troops killed 35 civilians during a manhunt for the killers of more than 400 villagers. There were also press reports that police killed one rioter during protests after the killing of popular singer Lounes Matoub by Islamic rebels. Pro-government militias also killed civilians during the year. In April the Government arrested the mayors of two municipalities in the province of Relizane, along with several other officials, on charges that they were responsible for the deaths of as many as 77 villagers over a 5-year period."...
"Armed Islamic groups also committed numerous abuses such as beheading, mutilating, disemboweling, and dismembering their victims, including infants, children, and pregnant women. These terrorists also committed dozens of rapes of female victims, many of whom were murdered thereafter. There were also frequent reports of other young women being abducted, raped for weeks at a time, and effectively held as sex slaves for the use of leaders and members of the group." [US State Department, Human Rights Report, February 1999]

Number of Deaths:

Total: Although it is impossible to provide a precise figure, it is estimated that the armed conflict in Algeria has killed as many as 200,000 people . The government has also been accused of “disappearing” approximately 7,000 persons.

“Algeria descended into violence in 1992 after the then military-backed authorities scrapped a parliamentary election which an Islamist political party was set to win. Up to 200,000 people were killed in the ensuing bloodshed.” [Reuters, 12 April, 2007]

2008 Based on media reports, at least 221 people were killed in 2008, with 122 deaths occurring in August alone. There were also a large number of wounded individuals, with reports placing the number over 500. Although AQIM says it is committed to protecting civilians, the large number of civilian casualties in AQIM attacks has contradicted their statements.

2007 Based on media reports, at least 371 people were killed in 2007, with a large number of civilians among them. These was also a large number of wounded, with media reports placing the number at 267. Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb’s use of suicide bombers has led to an increase in civilian casualties, while the Algerian government’s raids against the same have increased the number of military casualties as well.

“One bomb ripped through the offices of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees and neighbouring UN Development Programme (UNDP) and 10 Algerian staff of the world body were among the dead, a senior UN official said…A second bomb blew apart a passing bus packed with university students outside the Supreme Court.” [Associated Foreign Press, 11 December, 2007]

“Intensity and scope of attacks on civilian and official targets increased; leaving 75 dead. Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb claimed responsibility for many; including 6 September apparent assassination attempt on President Bouteflika in Batna, killing 20, and 8 September suicide car bombing in Dellys, killing 37 coastal guard officers. Group also claimed responsibility for 21 September attack on convoy of French company employees.” [CrisisWatch, 1 October, 2007]

“Last month, double suicide bombings rocked Algiers, killing 33 people and injuring 57. Al Qaeda in Maghreb claimed responsibility for the April 11 attacks, which hit the prime minister’s office and a police station.” [latimes.com, 14 May, 2007]

“The increase in casualties stems from a military push in the Kabylie region east of the capital in which helicopter gunships, armoured vehicles and thousands of troops were deployed against rebels holed up in the mountains and forests, the newspapers said. Of the 45 dead, 33 were rebels, 11 were soldiers and on was a foreigner.” [Mail & Guardian, 2 April, 2007]

2006: Based on media reports, at least 124 people were killed in 2006, with 26 civilians among them. In October, the Tizi-Ouzou regional assembly president was murdered by unidentified gunmen.

“18 children and 3 women found dead in Jijel cave: police killed 5 suspected GSPC militants during raid.” [International Crisis Group, May 2006]

“Algerian soldiers have killed at least 10 suspected Muslim fighters in a raid on a gang accused of shooting dead 13 customs officials, newspapers reported on Sunday.” [Al Jazeera, April 9, 2006]

“Government said toll of 15-year conflict was 200,000 and government forces had killed 17,000 rebels - first official figures for anti-government casualties.” [International Crisis Group, April 2006]

2005: 488 people were killed in 2005 according to the government. This is similar to the 2003 total and remains well below prior years when the number of deaths recorded regularly topped 1,000.

"According to the government, the total number of terrorist, civilian, and security force deaths during the year was 488, compared to 429 in 2004 and 1,162 in 2003. Of these 488 deaths during the year, terrorists killed 76 civilians (93 in 2004) and 177 security force members (117 in 2004); and security forces killed an estimated 235 suspected terrorists (219 in 2004)." [Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2005, Algeria, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, US Department of State, 2006]

"Armed Islamic Group, previously thought largely defunct, [was] blamed for shooting 14 civilians at roadblock near Larbaa, 30 km south of Algiers. [The] interior ministry later said it had arrested GIA leader Boulenoaur Oukil." [CrisisWatch, International Crisis Group, June 1, 2005]

2004: The official death toll for 2003 is 429. In the year’s most serious incident, over 60 combatants were killed (a mixture of GSPC rebels and Chadian soldiers). This is a significant decline from the conflict deaths in 2003.

2003: According to independent media reports, close to 1,000 people died as a result on the conflict in 2003. Although the figure remained high, the annual death toll in Algeria has declined steadily for the past several years. A significant number of the year’s conflict deaths occurred among government security forces, perhaps due to the Salafist Group for the Preaching and Combat (GSPC) which claimed that it only targets security forces and agents of the state. [The Daily Telegraph, June 5, 2003] Nevertheless, civilians remained targets in the conflict.

"According to Western diplomats, an average of 30 people are still murdered each week in Algeria." [The Guardian Weekly, July 10-16, 2003]

2002 According to independent media reports, over 1,000 people died in 2002.

2001 Approximately 1,650 people died in 2001.

"In one of the bloodiest battles since the start of a nine-year insurgency, Islamic militants attacked government troops in Algeria, killing 40 soldiers and losing seven of their own fighters.” [Associated Press, April 30, 2001]

"Assailants shot and killed 17 people, including 10 children, in the worst outbreak of violence in Algeria during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan this year... The victims ranged from 5 to 66 years old, and most were girls or women because most of the men in the family were in town or returning from the mosque after evening prayers... They said a large number of armed men separated into groups and attacked several homes." [The Boston Globe, December 8, 2001]

2000 More than 2,500 people died in 2000.

"The death toll in Algeria ’s eight-year civil war has averaged more than 200 per month since January, when an amnesty offer from President Abdelaziz Bouteflika expired." [BBC News, 23 July 2000]

"More than 2 500 people, including women and children, were killed by armed groups which define themselves as ‘Islamic groups’, and by security forces and paramilitary militias." [Amnesty International Report, 2001]

1999 There were estimates that as many as 3,000 people, mostly civilians, died in 1999.

"Armed groups killed numerous civilians, including infants, in massacres and with small bombs. Bombs left in cars, cafes, and markets killed and maimed persons indiscriminately. Some killings also were attributed to revenge, banditry, and land grabs. There were estimates that as many as 3,000 civilians, terrorists, and security force members died during the year in domestic turmoil. After his election, President Bouteflika acknowledged that a more accurate accounting of the number of persons killed during the past 8 years placed the total at about 100,000. Armed terrorists particularly targeted women; there were numerous instances of kidnapping and rape." [US State Department, Human Rights Report, February 2000]

1998 Between 7,000 and 10,000 people were killed in conflict during 1998, marking a further increase in casualties from the previous year’s already extreme death toll.

"Armed groups continued to kill numerous civilians, including infants, by massacres and small bombs. Armed Islamists particularly targeted women; there were numerous instances of kidnapping and rape. Bombs left in cars, cafes, and markets killed and maimed persons indiscriminately. Some killings were also attributed to revenge, banditry, and land grabs. There were estimates that as many as 7,000 civilians, terrorists, and security forces died during the year in domestic turmoil, and that as many as 77,000 persons have been killed during the past 7 years." [US State Department, Human Rights Report, February 1999]

Political Developments:

2008 President Abdelaziz Bouteflika put forward a motion to amend the constitution so he could run for a third term which was passed in parliament with an overwhelming majority. The elections are scheduled for April 2009. After the December 2007 attacks on UN buildings, the UN claimed that the government failed to answer requests for increased security and Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon appointed an independent panel to review security which the Prime Minister said was ‘unwelcome.’ In March, AQIM kidnapped 2 Austrians on holiday in Tunisia and demanded the release of AQIM prisoners from Liberia. Although their demands were not met, the two civilians were released in November 2008.

2007 President Abdelaziz Bouteflika’s attempts at reconciliation continued, but this exposed him as a target for the rebel group al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb. A human bomb attack in September 2007 was likely intended to be an assassination attempt on Bouteflika’s life, and the increase in suicide bombings by al-Qaeda was implicated as a way to disrupt the 2007 elections. Multiparty parliamentary elections held on May 17 were conducted in a generally transparent manner, and President Bouteflika was re-elected President of Algeria.

“Bouteflika was targeted since he is the symbol of national reconciliation, a policy that succeeded in significantly weakening the armed groups, particularly al Qaeda…” [Reuters, 7 September, 2007]

“Under the policy Bouteflika had offered several amnesties under which thousands of rebels have surrendered, leading to a steady reduction in political violence in recent years.” [Reuters, 7 September, 2007]

“Interior Minister Nourredine Yazid Zerhouni said the suicide blasts that killed 33 in the capital on Wednesday may have been designed to disrupt May 17 parliamentary polls and torpedo efforts to put a definite end to years of political violence. [Reuters, 12 April, 2007]

“Multiparty parliamentary elections on May 17 were conducted in a generally transparent manner, but not all political parties were allowed full access to the electoral process. Multiparty local elections were held on November 29, but the election process was marred by irregularities and charges of fraud.” [U.S. Department of State Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Algeria 2007, 11 March, 2008]

2006 The Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation was implemented from March until September, giving amnesty to government security forces and prisoners engaged in the civil war, outside of those involved in collective massacres, rape, or bombings in public places. 300 rebels previously at large were reported by the government to have surrendered. The GSPC officially joined al-Qaeda in September, and has planned attacks on France and US bases in Algeria. The government has been engaged in counter-terrorism agreements or talks with the US, Britain, and France.

“Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika vowed on Wednesday to crush a lingering Islamist insurgency in tough remarks signalling that an expired amnesty aimed at ending years of violence is unlikely to be renewed. ‘There is no alternative for residual terrorism but to disappear and vanish,’ the leader of the north Africa oil and gas exporting nation said in a speech to government officials. ‘We won't feel at ease until its (terrorism) final eradication, (carried out) in legitimacy and the rule of law.’ The comments came two weeks after Interior Minister Noureddine Yazid Zerhouni said that authorities in Africa's second largest country would in practice still accept any rebel surrender despite the expiry of the six-month amnesty on Aug 31. Analysts and Algerian media had said Zerhouni's comments, and similar remarks by Prime Minister Abdelaziz Belkhadem, could pave the way for Bouteflika to extend the pardon by an executive decree. Only Bouteflika has the power to extend the amnesty.” [Reuters, September 27, 2006]

“Yet the GSPC is not for want of funds: more than USD $22 million was found in the vehicle carrying the three leading arrestees. As elaborate fundraising networks and activities abroad have demonstrated—most recently through the arrests in late December of Algerians in Spain accused of crimes from which the proceeds were funneled to Algerian mujahideen elsewhere such as Afghanistan—investigators are now turning their attention to the European arena. GSPC members continue to be picked up all over Europe—in Spain, Italy, France, the UK, the Netherlands and Belgium.” [The Jamestown Foundation, January 9, 2006, http://jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?issue_id=3578 ]

2005 The Algerian government’s reconciliation charter was approved by a large majority of voters in an October 2005 referendum although opposition groups claimed voting irregularities. The charter grants partial amnesty to rebels and security forces and sets out compensation to families of victims. It also increases the power of the presidency and restricts the role that religious-based groups, many of them tied to former rebels, can play in Algerian politics. The GSPC continued to reject the government’s offer of peace negotiations while the US and Algerian governments increased military cooperation under the guise of the US “War on Terrorism.”

"Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika on Tuesday pardoned 6 778 prisoners, marking the 51st anniversary of the start of the country's eight-year war of independence with France as well as the end of Ramadan... The pardons were a prelude to broader measures expected to be announced as this North African nation moved forward with its charter for peace and national reconciliation - designed to mend a society fractured by more than a dozen years of Islamic insurgency." [News24.com, November 1, 2005]

"Algerian President Abdelaziz Boutleflika won almost unanimous support for his controversial plans aimed at ending years of violence in the north African country, referendum results showed Friday. More than 97 percent of voters said 'yes' to the president's Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, Interior Minister Yazid Zerhouni told a news conference. Turnout was 79.76 percent. Just 2.64 percent of them voted against the charter, the minister added. The president's plans provide for an effective amnesty for many of the Islamic extremists who rose up in 1992 to protest the sudden cancellation of elections the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was poised to win. The party was subsequently banned. But critics complain the charter grants impunity to the security services also engaged in the ensuing violence that has claimed some 150,000 lives." [Middle East Online, October 30, 2005]

2004 The conflict in Algeria remains part of the US-led war on terrorism because of the GSPC’s alignment with al Qaeda. Government amnesty talks with members of the GSPC seem to have caused a split within the group. In November, the government announced that it was considering general amnesty for Algerians implicated in murder and violence during the past 12 years. The President of Algeria announced that despite his party’s win in the most recent election, his government would not make a decision regarding amnesty without cooperation from the opposition parties.

" …some 300 members, or 80 percent, of al Qaeda-aligned Salafist Groups for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) are in talks with Algerian authorities to lay down their arms in exchange for an amnesty after realizing their goal will not be achieved." [Reuters, June 6, 2004]

"...analysts said they did not expect hard-line GSPC leader Nabil Sahraoui and his deputy Aman Saifi to surrender because of their allegiance to al Qaeda and an apparent split from the bulk of the GSPC." [Reuters, April 25, 2004]

2003 The US-led “War on Terror” had implications for the conflict in Algeria as the Algerian Government found a new ally in the US in its campaign against Islamic rebel groups. The release of two FIS leaders after twelve years of imprisonment may influence the presidential election in 2004. Although both leaders have been banned from engaging in political activity, it is believed that their release may boost FIS party support prior to the elections.

"U.S. Assistant Secretary of State William Burns said on Saturday ‘counter-terrorism’ cooperation with Algeria would intensify at a time when an Algerian Islamic guerrilla group pledged its loyalty to the al Qaeda network." [Reuters, October 25, 2003]

2002 In April, the leadership of the GIA was assumed by hardliner Rachid Oukali, alias Rachid Abou Tourab, after Antar Zouabri was killed by security forces. Both the GSPC and the GIA rejected a reconciliation policy proposed by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. At the same time, the widespread support for anti-terrorist measures generated by the events of September 11, 2001 helped to legitimize the government’s intensified military response to Islamic extremists.

"[Rachid Abou Tourab] has said in the past that there will be no dialogue, no respite - only blood and destruction. The 28-year-old has also threatened with death all Algerians who refuse to join in what he describes as the ‘holy war’ against the government. He is quoted as saying: ‘We will continue to destroy their harvests, take their goods, rape their women and decapitate them in the cities, the villages and the deserts.’” [BBC News, August 19, 2002]

"On the counterinsurgency front, the army stepped up operations against the GSPC's mountain strongholds. It used heavy hardware and helicopter gunships.... In the continuing wake of September 11th, the ideology of hardline repression gathered pace. It has now become an integral part of the counterinsurgency policy in an ongoing conflict that has claimed at least 100,000 lives in the last 10 years. Algeria is keen to position itself at the forefront of anti-terrorism, particularly in Africa, where it is to host the African Union Conference from September 11th to 14th." [ Algeria Interface, September 4, 2002]

2001 Two Islamic guerilla groups rejected President Bouteflika’s amnesty, the GIA and the Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC). The GSPC has stated that it would limit its attacks on civilian populations, in contrast to the GIA which made no such statement and vowed to continue its operations.

“The GIA rejected a conditional amnesty offered by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, as did a group called the GSPC, which has focused its attacks on military targets. Since the latest upsurge in violence which began late last year, President Bouteflika has faced a wave of criticism over his failure to end the bloodshed. He vowed to fight the militants with an iron fist." [BBC News, February 12, 2001]

“President Bouteflika's Law on Civil Concord in 2000 initially contributed to a decrease in violence against civilians inside Algeria. Nonetheless, two main armed groups continued to reject the government's amnesty program for terrorists, and it is estimated that domestic terrorism kills between 100 to 300 persons each month. Antar Zouabri's Armed Islamic Group (GIA) actively targeted civilians, although such tactics caused his group to lose popular support. In contrast, Hassan Hattab's splinter faction--the Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC)--stated it would limit attacks on civilians, enabling it to co-opt Zouabri's supporters and eclipse the GIA as the most effective terrorist group operating inside Algeria.” [US State Department, Patterns of Global Terrorism, April 2001]

2000 Although the amnesty offered by the Algerian government to insurgents brought in more than 1,000 guerrillas and led to the dissolution of the AIS, it failed to bring an end to the violence. However, in a change of policy, President Bouteflika invited four human rights groups to visit the country.

"On January 11, two days before the amnesty expired, the guerrilla group that started the war, the Islamic Salvation Army, agreed to dissolve itself after Mr. Bouteflika granted its estimated 8000 fighters a blanket amnesty. The move effectively ratified the status quo, since the Islamic Salvation Front, the political group that controlled the fighters, had observed a cease-fire since August 1997." [New York Times, 27 January 2000]

1999 Following his election, President Bouteflika offered a limited amnesty to rebels who had not committed murder, bombings, or rape. The amnesty was overwhelmingly approved by a September popular referendum and Bouteflika threatened to clamp down on rebels who did not take advantage of it by January 2000

"Dramatic political developments, coupled with a decline in violent incidents, fueled optimism among Algerians that the country had turned the corner on the worst years of civil strife. The new president, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, won popular support for his blunt talk about government corruption and for offering a partial amnesty to Islamist rebels as a step toward achieving peace and reconciliation. However, he devoted little energy to establishing safeguards against future human rights violations or accountability for past abuses." [Human Rights Watch World Report, 2000]

"The amnesty, called the civil concord, was proposed by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika following his election last April and was overwhelmingly approved last September in a popular referendum. It offers a limited amnesty to rebels who have not committed murder, bombings, or rape. An estimated 15-hundred rebels have reportedly surrendered." [Voice of America, January 13, 2000]

1998 Prime minister Ahmed Ouyahia resigned in December, after being blamed by many in the press for a decline in Algerian living conditions. As well, President Zeroual will be replaced in April 1999 elections, with hope that some of the candidates to replace him have the potential, if elected, to act as moderate civilian voices between the government/military and the insurgents. There were no direct peace talks in 1998. A UN fact-finding mission led by former Portuguese President Mario Soares visited the country for two weeks in July.

"On December 6th, in a speech before the Algerian parliament, Ahmed Ouyahia defended his record as prime minister for the past three years, then handed in his resignation to President Liamine Zeroual... Disliked by the press and the population at large, Ouyahia is blamed not so much for the continuing massacres of civilians as for the decline in living conditions.
“Meanwhile, there is much speculation about Zeroual’s possible successors as president...Three other candidates have emerged. They are all civilians and seem to offer some hope that there may at last be some form of national reconciliation." [Le Monde; in the Guardian Weekly, December 20, 1998]

Background:

Since it cancelled the first multiparty election in 1992 to prevent a near-certain victory of the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), the military-backed regime has fought Islamic groups seeking state control on both military and political fronts. In its military battle against the major armed Islamic groups, the Islamic Salvation Army (connected to the FIS) and the extremist Armed Islamic Group (GIA), the government also has engaged local militias. In 1996, a high-turnout of voters overwhelmingly approved a new constitution which consolidated government power by, among other things, banning parties based on religion. The next year controversial elections provided further government gains, the FIS leader, Abassi Madani, was freed mid-way through a 12 year prison sentence, and the Islamic Salvation Army began a cease-fire.

In a November 1997 statement, a former secret agent with Algeria ’s sécurité militaire accused the Algerian regime of responsibility for 1995 Paris bombings, the killing of foreigners and bribery of foreign officials. He blamed the many civilian massacres on secret police and army death squads. He claimed that "the police state is run as the private fiefdom of two men: Mohammed Mediane, codename ‘Tewfik’, and General Smain Lamari, the most feared names in Algeria. They are, respectively, head of the Algerian secret service, the DRS, and its sub-department, the counter intelligence agency, the DCE." [Guardian Weekly, November 16, 1997] The agent also claimed that the sécurité militaire murdered President Mohammed Boudiaf in June 1992 to prevent the exposure of corrupt generals with access to huge oil and gas revenues. In 1999, a new president, President Bouteflika, offered a limited amnesty to rebel combatants who had not engaged in murder, rape or bombing campaigns. The amnesty was accepted by a significant number of rebels, particularly FIS fighters, but it was rejected by the GSPC and the GIA.

In more recent years, the violence has been declining however with the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat turning to al-Qaeda for support, 2007 has shown an increase in suicide bombings and civilian casualties. This new wave of attacks threatens President Abdelaziz Bouteflika’s attempt at reconciliation within Algeria after more than fifteen years of civil conflict.

The violence continued in 2008, culminating in over one hundred deaths in the month of August as a response to a government crackdown on AQIM. AQIM continues to receive financing and equipment from the larger branch of Al-Qaeda and seem not to have weakened despite government attacks.

“‘Bouteflika was targeted since he is the symbol of national reconciliation, a policy that succeeded in significantly weakening the armed groups, particularly al Qaeda,’ editor of Eshorouk daily and security analyst Anis RAhmani said. ‘I am predicting more big attacks. Al Qaeda will do whatever possible to punish the Algerian people, who continue to support Bouteflika’s amnesty offer to end the conflict,’ Rahmani said.” [Reuters, 7 September, 2007]

Arms Sources:

In December 2002 the US announced it would abandon its arms embargo against Algeria, in place since 1992, and in 2003 the US and the UK began to openly supply military equipment to the Algerian government. The US policy was adopted in order to “help arm the government … in its fight against Islamic rebels.” [The Daily Telegraph, December 11, 2002] In 2005, the US military began training Algerian soldiers.

Currently, the top suppliers of conventional weapons to Algeria are Russia, Ukraine, US, and China. Other suppliers of note include Belarus, South Africa, Spain and several other European countries. In 2005 a pending arms deal between the Russian and Algerian governments worth approximately USD 2 billion could see Algeria acquire several squadrons of Russian military aircraft. In 2003, Spain supplied the Algerian government with 10 military aircraft and the Czech republic supplied the government with 17 jet trainer aircraft. However, those countries supplying weaponry to the Algerian government have expressed concerns over the latter’s human rights record and have hinted that further assistance may be linked to improvements in this area. Rebel groups are reported to be receiving weapons from Iran and Sudan as well as from international gun-running networks. . In 2008, with the adoption of their new name al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), the former Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) have linked themselves to Al-Qaeda and independent media reports indicate they are receiving supplies from the larger terrorist network.

“Algeria has agreed to buy $7.5 billion worth of combat planes, air-defense systems and other arms from Russia, the head of Russia’s state arms exporter Rosoboronexport said on March 10.” [DefenseNews, March 10, 2006]

"Russia suggested taking 36 old MiG-29s, which were delivered to Algeria in 1999, in exchange for the new MiG-29SMT, in a move to raise the attractiveness of the offer against France, which promotes Mirage-2000-5 in Algeria. The source said Algeria will seal a long-agreed contract for 300 T-90s tanks within the following two to three months." [Kommersant.com, May 27, 2005]

"The United States and its European allies have been reluctant to equip the Algerian military with lethal weapons because of concerns about its human rights record." [Reuters, October 25,2003]

"Britain said yesterday that it had contracted to sell military equipment and arms to the Algerian Government to use against Islamic insurgents, ending a de facto embargo observed previously because of alleged human rights abuses by the Algiers authorities." [Times Online, January 27, 2003]

[Other sources: SIPRI Yearbook 2002 to 2005, The Military Balance 2004/2005, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers 1999-2000]

Economic Factors:

Details of links between the armed movements and local “mafias” involved in illicit economic activities such as smuggling emerged in 2004. The Fundamentalists have been abandoned by the mainstream parties and much of the Algerian public and are seeking support for their activities from other areas. With the adoption of their new name al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC) have officially linked themselves to the terrorist network that has been suspected of funding them for several years. The Algerian government has also accused Iran and Sudan of funding AQIM, and it has been reported that foreign independents also aid with financial support.

“The Algerian government has accused Iran and Sudan of funding the group. Al Qaeda also provides material and financial support to AQIM. In addition, AQIM has many members abroad, the majority located in Western Europe, who provide financial and logistical support.” [ADL, http://www.adl.org/terrorism/symbols/al_qaeda_maghreb.asp]

“Italian police carried out raids and issued arrest warrants for members of an Algerian fundamentalist Islamic cell. Police say the cell financed and gave logistical support to Islamic terrorism responsible for massacres in Algeria.” [GlobalSecurity, October 2, 2006]

"As the armed movements' political and social bases have contracted, their connections with local ‘mafias’ involved in illicit economic activities, notably smuggling, have become more pronounced. Links to al-Qaeda underline the narrowness of their domestic constituency and reliance on external sources of legitimation." [International Crisis Group, July 30, 2004]